The control flow code blocks in Go are much like other popular programming languages, but there are also many differences. This article will show these similarities and differences.
if-else two-way conditional execution block.
for loop block.
switch-case multi-way conditional execution block.
for-range loop block to iterate integers,
all kinds of containers,
channels,
and some functions.
type-switch multi-way conditional execution block for
interfaces.
select-case block for
channels.
Like many other popular languages, Go also supports break,
continue and goto code execution jump statements.
Besides these, there is a special code jump statement in Go, fallthrough.
Among the six kinds of control flow blocks,
except the if-else control flow,
the other five are called breakable control flow blocks.
We can use break statements to make executions
jump out of breakable control flow blocks.
for and for-range loop blocks are called
loop control flow blocks.
We can use continue statements to end a loop iteration in advance
in a loop control flow block, i.e. continue to the next iteration of the loop.
Please note, each of the above mentioned control flow blocks is a statement, and it may contain many other sub-statements.
Above mentioned control flow statements are all the ones in narrow sense. The mechanisms introduced in the next article, goroutines, deferred function calls and panic/recover, and the concurrency synchronization techniques introduced in the later article concurrency synchronization overview can be viewed as control flow statements in broad sense.
The current article mainly explains the basic control flow code blocks
and code jump statements. Go 1.22 introduced for range anInteger {...}
loops will be also touched. Other control flow code blocks will be explained
in many other coming Go 101 articles.
if-else Control Flow Blocksif-else code block is like
if InitSimpleStatement; Condition {
// do something
} else {
// do something
}
if and else are keywords.
Like many other programming languages, the else branch is optional.
The InitSimpleStatement portion is also optional.
It must be a simple statement if it is present.
If it is absent, we can view it as a blank statement (one kind of simple statements).
In practice, InitSimpleStatement is often
a short variable declaration or a pure assignment.
A Condition must be an expression which results to a boolean value.
The Condition portion can be enclosed in a pair of () or not,
but it can't be enclosed together with the InitSimpleStatement portion.
If the InitSimpleStatement in a if-else block is present,
it will be executed before executing other statements in the if-else block.
If the InitSimpleStatement is absent,
then the semicolon following it is optional.
Each if-else control flow forms
one implicit code block, one if branch explicit code block
and one optional else branch code block.
The two branch code blocks are both nested in the implicit code block.
Upon execution, if Condition expression results in true,
then the if branch block will get executed, otherwise,
the else branch block will get executed.
package main
import (
"fmt"
"math/rand"
"time"
)
func main() {
rand.Seed(time.Now().UnixNano()) // needed before Go 1.20
if n := rand.Int(); n%2 == 0 {
fmt.Println(n, "is an even number.")
} else {
fmt.Println(n, "is an odd number.")
}
n := rand.Int() % 2 // this n is not the above n.
if n % 2 == 0 {
fmt.Println("An even number.")
}
if ; n % 2 != 0 {
fmt.Println("An odd number.")
}
}
If the InitSimpleStatement in a if-else code block is a short variable declaration,
then the declared variables will be viewed as being declared in the top nesting implicit code block of the if-else code block.
An else branch code block can be implicit if the corresponding else
is followed by another if-else code block, otherwise, it must be explicit.
package main
import (
"fmt"
"time"
)
func main() {
if h := time.Now().Hour(); h < 12 {
fmt.Println("Now is AM time.")
} else if h > 19 {
fmt.Println("Now is evening time.")
} else {
fmt.Println("Now is afternoon time.")
h := h // the right one is declared above
// The just new declared "h" variable
// shadows the above same-name one.
_ = h
}
// h is not visible here.
}
for Loop Control Flow Blocksfor loop block is:
for InitSimpleStatement; Condition; PostSimpleStatement {
// do something
}
for is a keyword.
The InitSimpleStatement and PostSimpleStatement portions
must be both simple statements, and the PostSimpleStatement portion
must not be a short variable declaration.
Condition must be an expression which result is a boolean value.
The three portions are all optional.
Unlike many other programming languages, the just mentioned three parts following
the for keyword can't be enclosed in a pair of ().
Each for control flow forms at least two code blocks,
one is implicit and one is explicit.
The explicit one is nested in the implicit one.
The InitSimpleStatement in a for loop block
will be executed (only once) before executing other statements in the for loop block.
The Condition expression will be evaluated at each loop iteration.
If the evaluation result is false, then the loop will end.
Otherwise the body (a.k.a., the explicit code block) of the loop will get executed.
The PostSimpleStatement will be executed at the end of each loop iteration.
for loop example. The example will print the integers from
0 to 9.
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
fmt.Println(i)
}
If the
InitSimpleStatement and PostSimpleStatement
portions are both absent (just view them as blank statements),
their nearby two semicolons can be omitted.
The form is called as condition-only for loop form.
It is the same as the while loop in other languages.
var i = 0
for ; i < 10; {
fmt.Println(i)
i++
}
for i < 20 {
fmt.Println(i)
i++
}
If the
Condition portion is absent,
compilers will view it as true.
for i := 0; ; i++ { // <=> for i := 0; true; i++ {
if i >= 10 {
// "break" statement will be explained below.
break
}
fmt.Println(i)
}
// The following 4 endless loops are
// equivalent to each other (for most cases).
for ; true; {
}
for true {
}
for ; ; {
}
for {
}
If the
InitSimpleStatement in a for block
is a short variable declaration statement,
then the declared loop variables will be viewed as being declared
in the top nesting implicit code block of the for block.
For example, the following code snippet prints 012 instead of 0.
for i := 0; i < 3; i++ {
fmt.Print(i)
// The left i is a new declared variable,
// and the right i is the loop variable.
i := i
// The new declared variable is modified, but
// the old one (the loop variable) is not yet.
i = 10
_ = i
}
Note: Go 1.22 modified the semantics of
for loop blocks.
for loop block
was shared by all iterations during executing the loop block.
for loop
will be instantiated as a distinctive instance at the start of each iteration.
For most cases, the semantic change doesn't change code behavior. But sometimes, it does. So the semantic change breaks backward compatibility. Since Go 1.22, every Go source file should be specified a Go version to reduce the damage as small as possible.
Abreak statement can be used to make execution jump out of a
for loop control flow block in advance,
if the for loop control flow block is the innermost breakable
control flow block containing the break statement.
For example, the following code also prints 0 to 9.
i := 0
for {
if i >= 10 {
break
}
fmt.Println(i)
i++
}
A
continue statement can be used to end the current loop iteration
in advance (PostSimpleStatement will still get executed),
if the for loop control flow block is the innermost
loop control flow block containing the continue statement.
For example, the following code snippet will print 13579.
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
if i % 2 == 0 {
continue
}
fmt.Print(i)
}
for-range Control Flow Blocks to Iterate Integers
for-range loop blocks can be used to iterate integers,
all kinds of containers,
and channels.
The current article only explains how to use for-range loop blocks
to iterate integers.
Note: using for-range loop blocks to iterate integers is only supported since Go 1.22.
// i is declared earlier.
for i = range anInteger {
...
}
for i = 0; i < anInteger; i++ {
...
}
for i := range anInteger {
...
}
for i := 0; i < anInteger; i++ {
...
}
for i := range 10 {
if i % 2 == 0 {
continue
}
fmt.Print(i)
}
switch-case Control Flow Blocks
switch-case control flow block is
one kind of conditional execution control flow blocks.
switch-case block is
switch InitSimpleStatement; CompareOperand0 {
case CompareOperandList1:
// do something
case CompareOperandList2:
// do something
...
case CompareOperandListN:
// do something
default:
// do something
}
switch, case and default are three keywords.
InitSimpleStatement portion must be a simple statement.
The CompareOperand0 portion is an expression which is viewed as
a typed value (if it is an untyped value,
then it is viewed as a type value of its default type),
hence it can't be an untyped nil.
CompareOperand0 is called as switch expression in Go specification.
CompareOperandListX
(X may represent from 1 to N)
portions must be a comma separated expression list.
Each of these expressions shall be comparable with CompareOperand0.
Each of these expressions is called as a case expression in Go specification.
If a case expression is an untyped value,
then it must be implicitly convertible to the type of the switch expression
in the same switch-case control flow.
If the conversion is impossible to achieve, compilation fails.
Each case CompareOperandListX: or default:
opens (and is followed by) an implicit code block.
The implicit code block and that case CompareOperandListX: or default: forms a branch.
Each such branch is optional to be present.
We call an implicit code block in such a branch as a branch code block later.
There can be at most one default branch
in a switch-case control flow block.
Besides the branch code blocks,
each switch-case control flow forms two code blocks,
one is implicit and one is explicit.
The explicit one is nested in the implicit one.
All the branch code blocks are nested in the explicit one
(and nested in the implicit one indirectly).
switch-case control flow blocks are breakable,
so break statements can also be used in any branch code block
in a switch-case control flow block to make execution jump out of
the switch-case control flow block in advance.
The InitSimpleStatement will get executed firstly
when a switch-case control flow gets executed.
It will get executed only once during executing the switch-case control flow.
After the InitSimpleStatement gets executed,
the switch expression CompareOperand0 will be evaluated and only evaluated once.
The evaluation result is always a typed value.
The evaluation result will be compared (by using the == operator)
with the evaluation result of each case expression in the
CompareOperandListX expression lists,
from top to down and from left to right.
If a case expression is found to be equal to CompareOperand0,
the comparison process stops and the corresponding branch code block
of the expression will be executed.
If none case expressions are found to be equal to CompareOperand0,
the default branch code block (if it is present) will get executed.
switch-case control flow example:
package main
import (
"fmt"
"math/rand"
"time"
)
func main() {
rand.Seed(time.Now().UnixNano()) // needed before Go 1.20
switch n := rand.Intn(100); n%9 {
case 0:
fmt.Println(n, "is a multiple of 9.")
// Different from many other languages,
// in Go, the execution will automatically
// jumps out of the switch-case block at
// the end of each branch block.
// No "break" statement is needed here.
case 1, 2, 3:
fmt.Println(n, "mod 9 is 1, 2 or 3.")
// Here, this "break" statement is nonsense.
break
case 4, 5, 6:
fmt.Println(n, "mod 9 is 4, 5 or 6.")
// case 6, 7, 8:
// The above case line might fail to compile,
// for 6 is duplicate with the 6 in the last
// case. The behavior is compiler dependent.
default:
fmt.Println(n, "mod 9 is 7 or 8.")
}
}
The rand.Intn function returns a non-negative int
random value which is smaller than the specified argument.
Note, if any two case expressions in a switch-case control flow
can be detected to be equal at compile time, then a compiler may reject the latter one.
For example, the standard Go compiler thinks the case 6, 7, 8 line
in the above example is invalid if that line is not commented out.
But other compilers may think that line is okay.
In fact, the current standard Go compiler (version 1.23.n)
allows duplicate boolean case expressions,
and gccgo (v8.2) allows both duplicate boolean and string case expressions.
switch-case control block.
Then how to let the execution slip into the next branch code block?
Go provides a fallthrough keyword to do this task.
For example, in the following example, every branch code block
will get executed, by their orders, from top to down.
rand.Seed(time.Now().UnixNano()) // needed before Go 1.20
switch n := rand.Intn(100) % 5; n {
case 0, 1, 2, 3, 4:
fmt.Println("n =", n)
// The "fallthrough" statement makes the
// execution slip into the next branch.
fallthrough
case 5, 6, 7, 8:
// A new declared variable also called "n",
// it is only visible in the current
// branch code block.
n := 99
fmt.Println("n =", n) // 99
fallthrough
default:
// This "n" is the switch expression "n".
fmt.Println("n =", n)
}
Please note,
fallthrough statement must be the final statement in a branch.
fallthrough statement can't show up
in the final branch in a switch-case control flow block.
fallthrough uses are all illegal.
switch n := rand.Intn(100) % 5; n {
case 0, 1, 2, 3, 4:
fmt.Println("n =", n)
// The if-block, not the fallthrough statement,
// is the final statement in this branch.
if true {
fallthrough // error: not the final statement
}
case 5, 6, 7, 8:
n := 99
fallthrough // error: not the final statement
_ = n
default:
fmt.Println(n)
fallthrough // error: show up in the final branch
}
The InitSimpleStatement and CompareOperand0 portions
in a switch-case control flow are both optional.
If the CompareOperand0 portion is absent,
it will be viewed as true,
a typed value of the built-in type bool.
If the InitSimpleStatement portion is absent,
the semicolon following it can be omitted.
switch n := 5; n {
}
switch 5 {
}
switch _ = 5; {
}
switch {
}
For the latter two
switch-case control flow blocks in the last example,
as above has mentioned, each of the absent CompareOperand0
portions is viewed as a typed value true
of the built-in type bool.
So the following code snippet will print hello.
switch { // <=> switch true {
case true: fmt.Println("hello")
default: fmt.Println("bye")
}
Another obvious difference from many other languages is the order of the
default branch
in a switch-case control flow block can be arbitrary.
For example, the following three switch-case control flow blocks
are equivalent to each other.
switch n := rand.Intn(3); n {
case 0: fmt.Println("n == 0")
case 1: fmt.Println("n == 1")
default: fmt.Println("n == 2")
}
switch n := rand.Intn(3); n {
default: fmt.Println("n == 2")
case 0: fmt.Println("n == 0")
case 1: fmt.Println("n == 1")
}
switch n := rand.Intn(3); n {
case 0: fmt.Println("n == 0")
default: fmt.Println("n == 2")
case 1: fmt.Println("n == 1")
}
goto Statement and Label Declaration
Like many other languages, Go also supports goto statement.
A goto keyword must be followed by a label to form a statement.
A label is declared with the form LabelName:,
where LabelName must be an identifier.
A label which name is not the blank identifier must be used at least once.
A goto statement will make the execution jump to the next statement
following the declaration of the label used in the goto statement.
So a label declaration must be followed by one statement.
A label must be declared within a function body. A use of a label can appear before or after the declaration of the label. But a label is not visible (and can't appear) outside the innermost code block the label is declared in.
The following example uses agoto statement and a label to implement a loop control flow.
package main
import "fmt"
func main() {
i := 0
Next: // here, a label is declared.
fmt.Println(i)
i++
if i < 5 {
goto Next // execution jumps
}
}
As mentioned above, a label is not visible (and can't appear) outside the innermost code block the label is declared in. So the following example fails to compile.
package main
func main() {
goto Label1 // error
{
Label1:
goto Label2 // error
}
{
Label2:
}
}
Note that, if a label is declared within the scope of a variable, then the uses of the label can't appear before the declaration of the variable. Identifier scopes will be explained in the article blocks and scopes in Go later.
The following example also fails to compile.package main
import "fmt"
func main() {
i := 0
Next:
if i >= 5 {
// error: jumps over declaration of k
goto Exit
}
k := i + i
fmt.Println(k)
i++
goto Next
// This label is declared in the scope of k,
// but its use is outside of the scope of k.
Exit:
}
The just mentioned rule may change later.
Currently, to make the above code compile okay,
we must adjust the scope of the variable k.
There are two ways to fix the problem in the last example.
k.
func main() {
i := 0
Next:
if i >= 5 {
goto Exit
}
// Create an explicit code block to
// shrink the scope of k.
{
k := i + i
fmt.Println(k)
}
i++
goto Next
Exit:
}
k.
func main() {
var k int // move the declaration of k here.
i := 0
Next:
if i >= 5 {
goto Exit
}
k = i + i
fmt.Println(k)
i++
goto Next
Exit:
}
break and continue Statements With Labels
A goto statement must contain a label.
A break or continue statement can also
contain a label, but the label is optional.
Generally, break containing labels are used in nested breakable control flow blocks
and continue statements containing labels are used in nested loop control flow blocks.
If a break statement contains a label,
the label must be declared just before a breakable control flow block
which contains the break statement.
We can view the label name as the name of the breakable control flow block.
The break statement will make execution jump out of
the breakable control flow block, even if the breakable control flow block
is not the innermost breakable control flow block containing
break statement.
If a continue statement contains a label,
the label must be declared just before a loop control flow block
which contains the continue statement.
We can view the label name as the name of the loop control flow block.
The continue statement will end the current loop iteration of
the loop control flow block in advance, even if the loop control flow block
is not the innermost loop control flow block containing
the continue statement.
break
and continue statements with labels.
package main
import "fmt"
func FindSmallestPrimeLargerThan(n int) int {
Outer:
for n++; ; n++{
for i := 2; ; i++ {
switch {
case i * i > n:
break Outer
case n % i == 0:
continue Outer
}
}
}
return n
}
func main() {
for i := 90; i < 100; i++ {
n := FindSmallestPrimeLargerThan(i)
fmt.Print("The smallest prime number larger than ")
fmt.Println(i, "is", n)
}
}
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reflect standard package.sync standard package.sync/atomic standard package.